List of the Atlantic Oceans Ten Marginal Seas

Rundown of the Atlantic Oceans Ten Marginal Seas The Atlantic Ocean is one of the universes five seas. It is the second-biggest behind the Pacific Ocean with an all out region of 41,100,000 square miles (106,400,000 sq km). It covers about 23% of the Earths surface and found primarily between the American landmasses and Europe and Africa. It additionally extends north to south from Earths Arctic locale toward the Southern Ocean. The normal profundity of the Atlantic Ocean is 12,880 feet (3,926 m) however the most profound point in the sea is the Puerto Rico Trench at - 28,231 feet (- 8,605 m).The Atlantic Ocean is additionally like different seas in that it imparts fringes to the two mainlands and minimal oceans. The meaning of a minimal ocean is a zone of water that is an incompletely encased ocean nearby or broadly open to the untamed sea (Wikipedia.org). The Atlantic Ocean imparts outskirts to ten peripheral oceans. Coming up next is a rundown of those oceans masterminded by territory. All figures were gotten from Wikipedia.org except if in any case noted.1) Caribbean SeaArea: 1,063,000 square miles (2,753,157 sq km)2) Mediterranean SeaArea: 970,000 square miles (2,512,288 sq km)3) Hudson BayArea: 819,000 square miles (2,121,200 sq km)Note: Figure got from the Encyclopedia Britannica4) Norwegian SeaArea: 534,000 square miles (1,383,053 sq km)5) Greenland SeaArea: 465,300 square miles (1,205,121 sq km)6) Scotia SeaArea: 350,000 square miles (906,496 sq km)7) North SeaArea: 290,000 square miles (751,096 sq km)8) Baltic SeaArea: 146,000 square miles (378,138 sq km)9) Irish SeaArea: 40,000 square miles (103,599 sq km)Note: Figure acquired from the Encyclopedia Britannica10) English ChannelArea: 29,000 square miles (75,109 sq km)ReferenceWikipedia.org. (15 August 2011). Atlantic Ocean - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Recovered from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_OceanWikipedia.org. (28 June 2011). Minimal Sea - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Recovered from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_seas

Psychoanalytic Personality free essay sample

Sigmund Freud is likely the most unmistakable name in brain research by both those in the field and the individuals who are definitely not. As the dad of analysis he contributed a lot to the field and to society overall. One of his significant commitments would be founded on this hypothesis of character. This hypothesis, sketched out in 1923, depends on the essential that the human brain comprises of three degrees of cognizance: cognizant, oblivious, and preconscious. Every one of these degrees of cognizance happens in the character structure isolated into three components called the id, sense of self, and superego. As indicated by Freud, the uniqueness and improvement of the id, conscience and the superego, decides an individual’s conduct in a given circumstance, which thusly brings about the advancement of the character (Rana, 1997). As indicated by Freud, one’s encounters in youth structure the character they have as a grown-up and is broken into five psychosexual long periods of improvement. We will compose a custom paper test on Psychoanalytic Personality or on the other hand any comparable theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page These early years continue through various stages. Every youngster experiences the various stages. These stages are the oral stage (first year of life), the butt-centric stage ( second year), phallic stage (third through fifth year), a time of inactivity (from 6 to 12), and the genital stage (after pubescence). Freud accepted that as each kid goes through these phases there may be a probable chance that a youngster may invest more energy in a specific stage then they should. This condition can prompt an obsession or an inadequate advancement of the character. A basic occasion during the initial five years of life is the experience of Oedipus and Electra clashes. Freud accepted that both genders experience and should manage these turmoil’s, which result from young men creating sexual fascination toward their moms, and young ladies creating sexual fascination towards their dads. A kid may have sentiments of desire towards his dad as he is a hindrance among him and his mom. Furthermore, they dread counter by their dads on the off chance that they are gotten (dread of mutilation). Since the kid adores his dad, these emotions are curbed and he starts to relate to the dad, embracing his qualities. Correspondingly young ladies create antagonistic vibe towards their moms, unknowingly reprimanding their moms for not being equivalent with young men. They accept that something is missing and feels insufficient (penis envy). What are two attributes of these hypotheses with which you concur? What are two attributes with which you oppose this idea? Depict the phases of Freud’s hypothesis and clarify qualities of character utilizing these segments. Depict employments of at any rate three Freudian barrier instruments with genuine models. Jung What are two attributes of these speculations with which you concur? What are two attributes with which you oppose this idea? Adler What are two qualities of these hypotheses with which you concur? What are two attributes with which you oppose this idea? One of his significant commitments would be founded on this hypothesis of character. This hypothesis, laid out in 1923, depends on the main that the human psyche comprises of three degrees of awareness: cognizant, oblivious, and preconscious. Every one of these degrees of awareness happens in the character structure partitioned into three components called the id, sense of self, and superego. As per Freud, the difference and advancement of the id, sense of self and the superego, decides an individual’s conduct in a given circumstance, which thus brings about the improvement of the character (Rana, 1997). As indicated by Freud, one’s encounters in youth structure the character they have as a grown-up and is broken into five psychosexual long stretches of improvement. These early years continue through various stages. Every youngster experiences the various stages. These stages are the oral stage (first year of life), the butt-centric stage ( second year), phallic stage (third through fifth year), a time of inertness (from 6 to 12), and the genital stage (after pubescence). Freud accepted that as each kid goes through these phases there may be an imaginable chance that a youngster may invest more energy in a specific stage then they should. This condition can prompt an obsession or a deficient improvement of the character. A basic occasion during the initial five years of life is the experience of Oedipus and Electra clashes. Freud accepted that both genders experience and should manage these turmoil’s, which result from young men creating sexual fascination toward their moms, and young ladies creating sexual fascination towards their dads. A kid may have sentiments of desire towards his dad as he is a deterrent among him and his mom. What's more, they dread reprisal by their dads on the off chance that they are gotten (dread of mutilation). Since the kid adores his dad, these sentiments are quelled and he starts to relate to the dad, receiving his qualities. Correspondingly young ladies create threatening vibe towards their moms, unknowingly reprimanding their moms for not being equivalent with young men. They expect that something is missing and feels deficient (penis envy). What are two qualities of these hypotheses with which you concur? What are two attributes with which you oppose this idea? Portray the phases of Freud’s hypothesis and clarify qualities of character utilizing these segments. Depict employments of at any rate three Freudian barrier instruments with genuine models.

Does Being Married Improve Life Expectancy

Does Being Married Improve Life Expectancy Relationships Spouses & Partners Print Does Being Married Improve Life Expectancy? And Why Its OK to Be Single By Mark Stibich, PhD  Mark Stibich, PhD, FIDSA, is a behavior change expert with experience helping individuals make lasting lifestyle improvements. Learn about our editorial policy Mark Stibich, PhD Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Carly Snyder, MD on November 12, 2019 facebook twitter linkedin Carly Snyder, MD is a reproductive and perinatal psychiatrist who combines traditional psychiatry with integrative medicine-based treatments.   Learn about our Medical Review Board Carly Snyder, MD Updated on February 04, 2020 Jose Luis Pelaez Inc / Getty Images More in Relationships Spouses & Partners Marital Problems LGBTQ Violence and Abuse When you grow old, who will take care of you? For many, that is a husband or wife. So does marriage improve life expectancy? Heres what research shows. Marriage was one of the first non-biological factors identified as improving life expectancy. The explanation given was that married people tend to take fewer risks with their health and have better mental and emotional health. Marriage also provides more social and material support, which means having someone to take you to the doctor or care for you when you are sick. However, research shows that the difference between married people and single people, in terms of health, is narrowing. This could be because the definitions of marriage are changing, or that people have other outlets for care. The Changing Face of Marriage and Life Expectancy No one is saying that having a piece of paper that says “married” on it is going to improve your life expectancy. However, there is something about people who live in a marriage that improves life expectancyâ€"or to be more precise, there was something about people who lived in marriage in the 70s that was found to improve life expectancy. Now, people can be listed as “single never married” in census data, but be living with someone and be experiencing all the health benefits of marriage without having the marriage certificate. This complicates research on marriage and health. Being Single Can Be Healthy Research shows that people who are single, especially men, are living longer than ever before. In the past, men who were never married typically had the lowest life expectancy, but now the never married men are closing in on their currently married counterparts. Experts believe the difference in life expectancy is becoming smaller because single men now have access to support and health resources that, in the past, only came because their wife took care of them. In other words, 40 years ago, married men had the advantage (over never married men) because they had their wives to make sure they went to the doctor and took care of themselves. Now, men are taking more responsibility for their own health and it is normal for a man to express concern about his health and take action. Why Being Widowed Hurts Losing a spouse who you have lived with your entire life is devastating for husbands and wives alike. As a result, research shows that people who are widowed have slightly worse health than people who are married. This is an issue that has gotten worse in recent years: No one really knows why the experience of being widowed now is more detrimental to health than being widowed in the past, however it is possible that people had more of a community and extended family to help them out. Now, the widowed are more likely to be isolated. Regardless of whether youre single, married or widowed, there are things you can do on your own to improve your longevity outside of a relationship.

Why Doesnt Vodka Freeze Alcohol vs. Freezing Point

People who drink vodka commonly keep it in the freezer. The vodka gets nice and cold, yet it doesnt freeze. Have you ever wondered why that is? Will the vodka ever freeze? The Freezing Point of Vodka Vodka consists primarily of water and ethanol (grain alcohol). Pure water has a freezing point of 0 ºC or 32 ºF, while pure ethanol has a freezing point of  -114 ºC or -173 ºF. Because its a combination of chemicals, vodka doesnt freeze at the same temperature as either water or alcohol. Of course, vodka will freeze, but not at the temperature of an ordinary freezer. This is because vodka contains enough alcohol to lower the freezing point of water below the -17 °C of your typical freezer. Its the same freezing point depression phenomenon that occurs when you put salt on an icy walk or antifreeze in your car. In the case of Russian vodka, which is standardized to 40% ethanol by volume, the freezing point of the water is lowered to -26.95 ° C or -16.51 ° F. That vodka might freeze outdoors over the course of a Siberian winter, and you can freeze it with an industrial freezer or using liquid nitrogen, but it will remain liquid in a normal freezer, which typically has a temperature no lower than  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ23 ºC to –18 ºC (-9 ºF to 0 ºF). Other spirits behave the same way as vodka, so you could put your tequila, rum, or gin in the freezer with pretty much the same result. Beer and wine will freeze in a home freezer because they contain much lower levels of alcohol than youll find in distilled liquors. Beer is typically 4-6% alcohol (sometimes as high as 12%), while wine runs around 12-15% alcohol by volume. Using Freezing to Enrich the Alcohol Content of Vodka One handy trick for increasing the alcohol percentage of vodka, particularly if its lower in alcohol content than 40 proof, is to apply a technique known as freeze distillation. This can be achieved by pouring the vodka in an open container, such as a bowl, and placing it in the freezer. Once the liquid cools below the freezing point of water, one or more ice cubes may be added to the bowl. The ice cubes serve as crystallization nuclei, much like using a seed crystal to grow larger crystals for a science project. The free water in the vodka will crystallize (form ice), leaving behind a higher concentration of alcohol. Storing Vodka in the Freezer Its probably a good thing vodka doesnt ordinarily freeze in a freezer, because if it did, the water in the liquor would expand. The pressure from the expansion could be enough to shatter the container. This is a good point to keep in mind if youre considering adding water to vodka to freeze it out and increase proof. Dont overfill the bottle or it will break when the water freezes! If you do freeze an alcoholic beverage, choose a flexible plastic container to minimize the risk of accidents or breakage. For example, choose a bag similar to the type used for premixed frozen cocktails.

BINOM.DIST in Excel

Calculations with the binomial distribution formula can quite tedious and difficult. The reason for this is due to the number and types of terms in the formula.  As with many calculations in probability, Excel can be utilized to expedite the process. Background on the Binomial Distribution The binomial distribution is a discrete probability distribution. In order to use this distribution, we need to make sure that the following conditions are met: There are a total of n independent trials.  Each of these trials can be classified as a success or failure.The probability of success is a constant p. The probability that exactly k of our n trials are successes is given by the formula: C( n, k) pk (1 - p)n – k. In the above formula, the expression C( n, k) denotes the binomial coefficient. This is the number of ways to form a combination of k elements from a total of n. This coefficient involves the use of the factorial, and so C(n, k) n!/[k!(n – k)! ]. COMBIN Function The first function in Excel related to the binomial distribution is COMBIN. This function calculates the binomial coefficient C( n, k), also known as the number of combinations of k elements from a set of n. The two arguments for the function are the number n of trials and k the number of successes. Excel defines the function in terms of the following: COMBIN(number, number chosen) Thus if there are 10 trials and 3 successes, there are a total of C(10, 3) 10!/(7!3!) 120 ways for this to occur. Entering COMBIN(10,3) into a cell in a spreadsheet will return the value 120. BINOM.DIST Function The other function that is important to know about in Excel is BINOM.DIST. There are a total of four arguments for this function in the following order: Number_s is the number of successes. This is what we have been describing as k.Trials are the total number of trials or n.Probability_s is the probability of a success, which we have been denoting as p.Cumulative uses an input either of true or false to calculate a cumulative distribution. If this argument is false or 0, then the function returns the probability that we have exactly k successes. If the argument is true or 1, then the function returns the probability that we have k successes or less. For example, the probability that exactly three coins out of 10 coin flips are heads is given by BINOM.DIST(3, 10, .5, 0). The value returned here is 0.11788. The probability that from flipping 10 coins at most three are heads is given by BINOM.DIST(3, 10, .5, 1). Entering this into a cell will return the value 0.171875. This is where we can see the ease of using the BINOM.DIST function. If we did not use software, we would add together the probabilities that we have no heads, exactly one head, exactly two heads or exactly three heads. This would mean that we would need to calculate four different binomial probabilities and add these together. BINOMDIST Older versions of Excel use a slightly different function for calculations with the binomial distribution. Excel 2007 and earlier use the BINOMDIST function. Newer versions of Excel are backward compatible with this function and so BINOMDIST is an alternate way to calculate with these older versions.

The Impact of Weak System Security Free Essays

In addition to this, it is not just the organization itself that can feel the brunt of the impact of weak security. Employees whose responsibility it is to ensure that there are no weaknesses an also be hit hard. Generally, it is up to managers to ensure that there are no weaknesses in a systems security; or at least to reduce the risk of negative impact/damage on the company. We will write a custom essay sample on The Impact of Weak System Security or any similar topic only for you Order Now This means that if there is a major weakness is found in the system of an organization, managers could lose their jobs as a result of negligence etc. This then puts the managers in a situation where they are losing money, not just the company. Loss of Customers- Weak system security can also result in the loss of customers as people will not want to use a business that has problems with their security s their personal details or information may be at risk. For example, if a bank has a weakness in its security, and this weakness is exploited by hackers; then customers’ information may be stolen and used to purchase goods under their name. This goes against the organization’s key responsibilities to its customers as they have a responsibility to keep their customers data safe and hidden from unrestricted access. This means that if people’s data is stolen or lost then they will more than likely move to a rival organization where they think that their data will be safer. This will result in the loss of customers from the company and a massive lost in trust; possibly resulting in the loss of jobs as there aren’t enough customers to make a profit for the company. Increased Costs- An increase in costs can also be incurred from the weakness in a systems security. This can be caused as a result Of needing a specialist engineer etc to come in to the company to see where the weakness in the systems security is. This may cost a lot of money as it is; and more money will need to be spent in order to get another specialist to come out and fix the problems that are there. In addition to this, customers may wish to receive mom sort of compensation as payment for the information that the company has lost about them. Or Image- A poor company image can be another nasty effect of weak system security. If a major company has even one or two system weaknesses it can reflect very badly on its image as people will start to lose trust in the overall protection that the company offers to its customers. A poor company image can have a massive impact on the ability for a company to make enough money to actually make a profit on the goods they are making/selling. A poor image may then result in the loss of customers and earnings from the many. It is therefore vital that the company ensures that there are no weaknesses in its security so that their company image stays strong. All of the above impacts can be related to the organizations key responsibilities to their Customers. The Organization has a massive responsibility to ensure that all of their customers’ personal data is kept secure, and that only the people who are authorized to access it are able to and only at the right times. This links in with the data protection act of 1998, as companies must provide suitable means of protecting customers’ data. How to cite The Impact of Weak System Security, Papers

Cypop 5 free essay sample

It helps children to deal with difficult circumstances such as emotional stress or medical treatments. Play gives children chance to let off steam and have fun. Children learn when they are in a safe and caring environment. They are stimulated through play. Babies and young children develop best when they are in a caring relationship with an adult. A baby will learn to walk faster when they have a safe pair of arms to walk towards and learn to talk when they have an adult who listens to them and responds accordingly. I aim to provide children with an environment that is caring, fun and stimulating. I aim to expand each childs individual, intellectual, physical and emotional capacities within a secure environment where each child, will be confident and settled. I will implement ideas from the EYFS and I will provide activities/opportunities that support the six main learning areas which are : * Knowledge Understanding Of the World * Personal social and emotional development * Communication language and literacy * Creative Development * Physical Development * Problem solving, Reasoning and Numeracy. Each child will be able to choose their own activities and access continuous provision throughout these six areas. Activities will be both planned and spontaneous according to your child’s preference. My weekly plan will be dependent on the children in my care and their ages and stages of development although I will be attending various groups and clubs within the local area that I live. Sample weekly plan: Morning afternoon Monday outdoor playchildren’s centre childminders group Tuesday -soft indoor play (wacky)creative play/ arts and crafts Wednesday-country park/ play areachildren’s centre playgroup Thursday baking/cookingoutdoor play Friday children’s centre groupindoor play at home Play can be constructed to fulfil areas of the EYFS, especially any areas where a child may be struggling, such as Playing with sand Texture, Weight, Pouring through containers, colours, measuring, shapes, make sand castles etc this can link to the following areas of the EYFS– personal development – personal, social and emotional development creative development – communication language and literacy All of the above would be flexible dependant on the children and any new sessions that can be accessed. Before any weekly plan can be made you would need to observe the children in your care to produce a plan that is appropriate to their development this will also help identify when to add/remove new toys/resources. I will use Natural resources and household items to provide stimulating play for the children to look after such as Sawdust and Bark for dinosaur play, jugs, funnels, guttering for water play, blankets pillows and throws and pegs for den building and communication friendly spaces etc. All children are individuals first, each with a unique profile of abilities. All planning starts with observing children in order to understand and consider their interests, development and learning. I will make systematic observations and assessments of each child’s achievements ,interests and learning styles. I will use these observations and assessments to identify learning priorities and plan relevant and motivating learning experiences for each child that I care for. I will match their observations to the expectations of the development matters principles. I will need to make regular observations on each child, using different techniques. These may include photographs, tick lists written observations and photographs. Where a child is not achieving their development goals I may then decide to speak to the parents regarding accessing other services for the child. All children need to feel valued and given the same options. I will ensure that children, parents/carers and visitors have equal rights and choices. Everyone will be given the respect that we all deserve as individuals. No person will be discriminated against and any remarks or comments of this kind will be challenged and discussed to ensure that it does not happen again. I welcome and include all children, their families and members of the community into my setting and I will ensure my setting is accessible to everyone. If a child in my care had specific requirements, certain changes would be made to the interior and exterior of my premises, dependent on the individuals circumstances. Certain activities are also adapted. All the children who come to my setting will have the same opportunities available to them. I am aware of the following legislation, The Children’s Act, The disability Act, UN convention on the Right of the Child, The children’s Bill 2004 and the Special Educational Needs Discrimination Act 2001. I will talk to different specialist groups, health visitors and read appropriate books to learn more about the condition and needs of the child, thus enabling me to provide the best possible care. If a child required assistance from a speech therapist or occupational therapist, then this could be arranged at my setting if it was more convenient for parents. I will do displays and have equipment in my setting that promotes a positive multi cultural attitude. I welcome parents/carers and visitors to talk about cultures, religions, food, clothes etc. I will never refuse or exclude a child. I will build on each child’s previous experience when accessing play opportunities. I will enable children to gain confidence and independence in play and identify individual requirements and provide appropriate support as/when required. I will also borrow and gain resources to enhance the inclusion of children with mobility or sensory difficulties. During snack time I will encourage children to help where appropriate eg. Older children could help butter crackers, or younger children could help divide fruit onto plates, I will encourage the children to help prepare our shopping list for the week for snacks and mealtimes and also encourage them to help with the meal plan for the week. During our week I will plan our activites a sample week could include : Monday : AM – Childrens centre drop in PM – Park weather dependant Tuesday AM – Wacky Warehouse PM – play at home LEGO, PUZZLES and nap time Wednesday AM –

Academic Effects Essays - Psychology, Education,

Academic Effects In the spring of 1997, Lisa Sharon Cushing and Craig H. Kennedy conducted an experiment to study the academic effects of providing peer support in general education classrooms on students without disabilities. In other words, students were paired with other students and their behavior observed. The study was undertaken to better understand the effects of peer support stratigies of participating students. Three non-disabled students were observed and a baseline measure of academic engagement was taken. Each student was paired to be a peer supporter with a disabled student and that level of behavior was observed. The experimental question states: Does serving as a peer support have a positive or negative effect on academic engagement and associated measures on peers without disabilities? The independent variable is the peer support of the disabled students. The dependant variable is time acadmeic engagement behavior during a fifty-minute class peroid. To sum it up, three non-disabled student who were judged to have poor class room attention and academic engagement during class were selcted in this study. A baseline measuer was obtained for a comparison point. The intervention, which is the paring up with a disabled student as a peer supporter, was introduced and a behavioral measure was again taken. The results were compared to that of the baseline measure. Three non-disabled students were selected for this experiment; Cindy, Kealoha, and Louie. First, Cindy is a 13-year-old quiet girl who draws little attention to herself and often has difficulty following directions. Second, Kealoha is a 12-year-old boy who has problems paying attention during class lectures and is often late in turning in assignments in on time or at all. Third, Louie is an 11-year-old boy who often interupts class by blurting out and talking to other students during lecture. Louie has not been turing in his assignments and was receiving low grades. Each of these students was paired with a disabled student to serve as a peer support during class. First, Cindy was paired with Cathy in English class. Cathy is a 13-year-old girl with severe multiple disabilities including Rett syndrome. She tracks people and objects by gazing, expresses herself by smiling or crying, and blinks her eyes to communicate to yes/no questions. She requires assistance with all activities. Second, Kealoha was matched with Karl, a 12-year-old boy, in a health class of 35 students. Karl has severe intellectual disabilities and communicates using one to three word utterances as well as gestures, touching, and pointing. Karl is invloved in self-injurious behavior, and occasionally kicks or punches other classmates. If he is left unattended, he often roams throughout the classroom. Third, Louie was paired with Leila, an 11-year-old girl. Louie and Leila attend three separate classes together; English, Social Studies, and Science. Leila has moderate intellectual disabilities including poor articulation and a limited vocabulary, which cause her problems to express herself. She frequently needs assistance to stay focused and to follow directions. In all, three subjects were studied but six subjects were involved in the experiment. In addition to direct observation, there were other methods of social validation employeed. Adults' perceptions of the classroom performance for Cindy and Louie were also assessed. They used the CPC, Classroom Participation Checklist, which contains a set of six questions relating to the engagement in classroom activities. Special education personnel who did not know the experimental question observed the student and rated his or her performance. The article does not address whether or not informed consent was obtained but is does discuss something similar. University graduate students took agreement measures by observing them in the naturalistic setting of their classroom. The mean agreement for Cindy and Kealoha were 88% and 93%. Louies' mean agreement for English, Social Studies, and Science, were 89%, 82% and 88% respectively. For Cindy and Kealoha, a withdrawl design was selected to best assess their academic engagement alone and while serving as peer supporters. By using an ABAB design, the experimenters can compare the data between the two phases. Baseline measures were gathered for all three participants to assess their normal behavior as a comparison point. Due to the fact the Louie will be observed in three different settings, a more approiate design was selceted. A multiple baseline design will

Ethics in the Workplace

Ethics in the Workplace Free Online Research Papers Abstract This paper focuses on current work ethics, duties and work place environment situations of the author. Each day dealing with customers both internal and external is like walking a tight rope. While an individual must speak his mind, he must also take into account the ethical issues from what may be shared between different people that the author deals with from time to time. He must also remember the laws of both company and local ordinances are kept in check. Ethics in the Workplace Ethics is an action that the author lives with each work day. Without ethics he has nothing. Along the same line, each person the author deals with must trust his ethical values before sharing information that may lead to intellectual property being traded. The author is a research and development engineer who calls on many different competing companies. He hears what each of the competitors is working on and what their problems that they have or are trying to solve. Being careful not to share the trade secrets of a competitor is always a fine line when they may indeed be trying to grab the same share of the market for which they are dealing in. If the author were to share an idea of one company to another may provide an advantage over the competitor. One way that each company protects its resources and trade secrets are through the use of nondisclosure agreements. The basic purpose of a nondisclosure agreement is to preventing the unauthorized disclosure of certain proprietary and confidential information. It defines what is considered confidential information as information or material that could have commercial value to other outside agencies or competitors. It will describe the exclusions, the obligations of the receiving party when discussing the information shared outside of the disclosing parties’ presence. It will also contain a time period for the information or material exchanged to remain in effect and of working for a company that is design oriented, may include the statement that whatever is developed while in the employment of a company shall be deemed intellectual property of the company in which that p erson is employed. Each parties or companies representatives sign and date the agreement and each get a copy to retain for their records. Legally the author is bound by nondisclosure agreements currently with Panasonic Avionics Corporation, Rockwell Collins, Inc, Lumexis Corporation and Thales Avionics, Inc. all of which develop and manufacture in-flight entertainment systems for commercial aircraft manufactures such as Boeing and Airbus. While each of the systems architectures is vastly different from one another the end result is the same, providing the airline customer a piece of entertainment during their time in flight. Since the author deals with all of these companies from week to week, insuring that no trade secrets or development efforts are shared outside of each company’s venues is what the author deals with each time he engages with the perspective engineering team. His integrity and ethics are put to the test each time he enters a technical discussion or even having lunch with a coworker or employee of the company. If he were to share a piece of intellectual property or trade secret to another compa ny, then not only are his ethics in question but legal issues may arise and charges brought upon the his company for breaking the nondisclosure agreement. In this case the author would certainly lose some integrity and put his ethics in question from both companies but his company may be a fault and charges brought upon them for mistrust of the agreement. But dealing with in-flight entertainment companies such as these is not all the author deals with. He deals in other realms of business such as undersea applications. Here there is even less competition between competitors. Like in-flight entertainment, where everyone hears what their competition is doing almost as fast as it is announced to the public, the same goes for the world of undersea exploration and development. If there is a problem or something goes wrong, their competition knows about it and starts to spread the bad news to the end users before they can even get back to the shop to figure out what went wrong. So what is the authors’ part, making sure to speak only of the facts of the situation? The author is representing each company as an ambassador in every facet of the business between them. Whether it is a meeting with a company officer, a member of the sales staff or just another staff engineer, the plan is to only present the public facts and not the ones sha red between the author and company in confidence. While it is very easy to see the advantages of one design over another when a person gets to see them all, it is always difficult not to present the advantages of what one competitor has over another. He or she needs to be commended on the details of the design that they have come up with, it is the author’s job to make that design the best without sharing the ideas of another. Dealing with the Business Ethics With the introduction of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act whose purpose is to encourage and enable the corporate executives be ethical and socially responsible, it does not stop at the executive level, it must be carried out by all employees who deal with the public. It can only provide an ethical path to follow it is always possible to get off the golden path and to do damage to others unethically or act socially irresponsible (Mallor, Barnes, Bowers, Langvardt, 2010, p. 91). The authors company enforces this type of yearly training to ensure that each of its employees agree to follow the company’s business ethics plan and is refreshed each year. Part of the training is to make sure that each employee is aware of what is expected and how to report situations of wrong doing if anyone suspects wrongdoing. The training reminds each of the employees to be mindful of integrity. Without integrity we have nothing and others outside the company whom we deal with would not trust in the company as a whole. Privacy is always a key role, such as what one company is willing to share to help develop a new product to assist them speeding their product to market or cheaper to build. Dealing with conflicts of interest is always a fine line. Each person must avoid them in all cases, because this could once again damage the face of the company. People are most likely to know if a conflict of interest is at hand would be when any person as an individual stands to make a benefit. This is different than giving the company a benefit over the competition; after all, this is what most businesses strive for, to be better than its competitors. Above all, you must obey the law, the laws of your corporation but also the laws of our country, state and city. Follow the regulations set forth for manufacturing processes and if applicable, the ones of the Environmental Protection Agency. People do not have to talk down about other companies to be the best, promote the things that make your company stand out from the rest, not what your competition is doing wrong, but what you do right, the rest will speak for itself. If you strive to promote your own business instead of trash tal king the others you can only go up in ranking on the ethical ladder. Making the Ethical Decision Making any decision is easy, but making sure it is ethical you need to do some simple checks. First you must acquire all the facts, not just the easy ones but all the facts that will support your opinion. Good decisions are made when you have all the facts, not just the ones that are easy to uncover. You cannot pass judgment unless you hear from both sides. Determine what alternative courses of action exist before making the final decision. There are always a minimum of two options and if you think about it a little bit harder, sometimes more. If you are left with only two, they usually are to do something or not do something. But be careful when you make that choice. Determine who the stakeholders are and what are the benefits or pitfalls of making the change will effect. If it is the corporation, then the decision must be to maximize the benefit of the shareholders as long as it is legal. But if the long term affects change the firm as a whole, will it still yield a benefit to the shareholder is the question that needs to be answered. An example may be moving an operation to from the states to Mexico. While the move may be beneficial from a labor cost view, what happens to all the people in the plant where the operations are being located from? The quality of the product must not decrease due to the move or the lead times for an order must not increase either. Study how the alternatives that you have come up with will impact the decision maker. If it is yourself, you may be thinking, this is selfish. While this will always play a role in your decision you must quickly rule it out while always seeking the best choice for everyone. The author of this paper throughout his career has made decisions that affected his own career path. He believes in sharing information with everyone involved to make the best possible decision. The author has always had a plan â€Å"B† available. The first company he was employed by, he trained more fellow engineers to do his job which when it came to the time of downsizing never left him on the wrong path. By sharing his knowledge with others, while their jobs may have been eliminated, they were kept on to perform other duties that they now had knowledge of and could perform without missing a step in the end goal. So now that the authors’ job has been replaced, he was never part of the layoff crew but was always assigned a new task to master. He has worked with several different companies that others did not have this type of team attitude and at the end of the day when downsizing was done, he was usually keep over the others who refuses to share. In each decision we need to look at the practical constraints of the alternatives we have determined. Evaluate them on the basis of what it will take to implement the end result. Determine if the resources, funds and labor are available to complete the choice in the time constraint desired. Another item of ethical decision making is to think critically, to evaluate arguments logically, honestly, and without bias in favor of your own arguments and against those of others. Always remember to base your decision on facts not opinions of others or because someone above you feels it is the wrong decision. Just because your supervisor or director of your department feels that it is wrong, do not change your decision based on their feedback. Doing something unethical will always get you in trouble, even if you use the excuse that you were told to do so by a superior, this includes up to the CEO. If possible try to find the win-win solution, but remember not to comprise your decision in doing so (Mallor, Barnes, Bowers, Langvardt, 2010, pgs 91 – 120). If you cannot be ethical in your day to day operations and work habits, you cannot expect anyone else to follow ethical rules that you refuse to follow yourself. The old saying â€Å"Practice what you preach† goes a long way here. Stand behind what you believe, and make sure your beliefs are ethical in nature. The Agency Relationship The agency relationship is one that the authors company has extended to him. He is an agent in the field who is there to listen and determine the voice of the customer. Extending the customers’ needs and desires back to the engineering team at the main plant is a vital role of doing business. The author’s role is much like that of a marketing department but all on his own. Survey the customer base; determine the specific key factors in order to determine to make the product or to stop before expending any additional effort by his fellow engineers. The decision is not solely his, which is where the agency relationship comes into play. He cannot make commitments to customers without first determining if the company team of engineers has the same vision presented. Dealing directly with customers takes a unique individual so selecting each person who will deal with them takes a team of bodies to determine if you have the right stuff. The interview process is relentless. The author prior to getting the job had no less than nine interviews dealing with managers from different aspects of the business unit and even a vice president of the division wanted to meet him prior to making the offer. The capacity of what the company has requested from the agent is determined during the interview stages. The company needs to feel comfortable that the selections they make can be carried out successfully. Dealing with the customer, providing the feedback the remote staff requirements are based on situational scenarios or past experience of the agent. The next step is to determine the level of authority to the agent. At this time actual authority comes to life in two forms, express authority which in terms of the author is primarily written but also complemented with oral instruction. But every situation cannot be determined. So there is also implied authority which binds the agent to what is reasonably within their assumed duties. While the author understands the du ties assigned to him, he must keep in check the overachieving manager who task is to insure new business and think outside the box on how to quickly solve a problem or determine a solution with the quickest and least amount of resources utilizing any means available. Directors sometimes see a much broader base that of the author or local sales engineers. They cover many different regions and visit a much larger customer base then most. They travel the region and globe looking for new opportunities in their business sector. Sometimes they get a little too excited and want to out partnerships into place where none exist. While this on the surface seems like a great idea, they may not have considered all the obligations between the parties they have thought to team. One example is two different companies that both trust the agents company but they deal with similar end products or it may be that one company utilizes similar parts from a competitor of one of the two possible partners th at the director of the agents company has determine. The author has this dilemma at the current time. One company that the author is currently working with wished to make a product that the company has no formal experience in developing. The obvious answer is to determine if there is another company that has this expertise and go into a joint development with another partner. What needs to be determined is if both outside companies willing to work with the agent and his team to develop a new product that is the beneficial to all parties. The entire time the agent has a duty of loyalty to the principal. He must avoid conflicts of interest and not disclose any confidential information between the principal without proper authorization. The agent must act with care, competence, and diligence whenever dealing with other outside contacts being careful not to share the ideas set for a specific customer. Dealings with ITAR ITAR or International Traffic in Arms Regulations is another aspect of the authors’ fine line that he deals with on a day to day aspect. Whenever he enters into a new discussion he must be careful to determine if everyone involved in the discussions are United States citizens. Many of the projects he deals with are controlled by the U.S. Department of State under ITAR. If a device or component was developed with nothing more than a defense budget or at the time of the development there was no intention to use it for in a commercial application then the device is considered to be controlled by ITAR. While there are some commercial applications which can use these items, they cannot be freely discussed with anyone at every company. The audience must be 100% U.S. citizen. There are many companies today, the authors included that have or employ foreign nationals or those not considered to be a U.S. citizen. These specific items may not be discussed with them by the author or even with anyone in their own company. While it is insulting to some people to be questioned as to the state of their citizenship, it is a question that must be asked before any discussions even proceed. In summary the author deals with many different companies each with their own intellectual property involved. He must make every effort to insure that it is protected until while in the development process and even after the product is made public. He has his ethics to protect for without it he would not be able to serve such a broad base of customers. Reference Mallor, J.P., Barnes, A.J., Bowers, T., Langvardt, A.W., Business Law: The Ethical, Global, and E-Commerce Environment (2010) New York: McGraw-Hill. Research Papers on Ethics in the WorkplaceMoral and Ethical Issues in Hiring New EmployeesAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaRiordan Manufacturing Production PlanNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This NiceOpen Architechture a white paperArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)Definition of Export QuotasTwilight of the UAWGenetic EngineeringThe Project Managment Office System

Business law - chinese trade and investment law Essay

Business law - chinese trade and investment law - Essay Example Significantly, in accordance with the principle of the balance between rights and duties, once China joins the WTO, China is said to be able to enjoy a "most favoured nation status" (Chen 2000). China's interest in WTO according to Chen (2000) is thus - ".the multilateral, stable and unconditional most favoured nation status provided by the WTO members and the achievements gained by other countries and regions from trade liberalization, [the participation] in the formulation of international trading rules, and [utilization of] the WTO's multilateral dispute solution mechanisms to safeguard China's rights and interests" According to the Fact File of the World Trade Organization (2005), the WTO is the only global international organisation dealing with the rules of trade between nations. Its goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business through agreements, negotiated and signed by the world's trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. Established on 1January1995, and created by the Uruguay Round negotiations (1986-1994), the organization is based in Geneva, Switzerland where 148countries (on 13October2004) are members. It has a budget of 169million Swiss francs for2005 and is now headed by Pascal Lamy as Director-General. The Fact File (2005) furt... Will joining the World Trade Organisation assist or hinder China's Development From the perspective of Rao (2001), a Chinese biotechnologist and food scientist, yes, China's joining the WTO in the long run will assist its development. Speaking before the WTO, he said China is aware that in so doing, some of its domestic food manufacturers will be hurt or damaged, just as others will not be. The Chinese government are also aware there could be initial shocks in agriculture and food industry, but in the long run "will be converted into a powerful driving force for its development." There are two views over the past years regarding China's accession to WTO: the optimistic view and the pessimistic view. The optimistic view reasons that the availability of cheaper supply food ingredients with higher quality after China's joining the WTO will give competitive edge to Chinese food industry in the international market (Rao 2001). In addition, the optimists say, China's membership will promote the rule of law in the country, undercut state power in controlling the lives of people, and accelerate China's transition from a command economy to a market economy. China's entry will also help modernize accounting, banking, legal, telecommunications, and transportation systems of the country, at the same time reduce corruption, favouritism, and local protectionism (Yu 2001). On the other hand, the pessimistic view says freer international trade and investment will strengthen the competitiveness of foreign food business in China, shrinking the domestic market for manufactured foods on account of the unavoidable decrease in Chinese farmers' income from low productivity. They say this will

Ethics of Medic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethics of Medic - Essay Example This is termed as the principle of beneficence. They have to take actions that supply the welfare of patients. In this case, the nurse had the obligation of ensuring that the chemotherapy was stopped since the boy saw no chances of surviving. However, in this case, there seems to be a conflict between beneficence and autonomy principles of ethics. Ashcroft et al (2007) acknowledge that the principle of autonomy realizes the rights of people to self-determination, and is based on the society’s respect for people’s aptitude to make knowledgeable decisions about personal issues. In this case, the patient’s personal decision conflicted with his personal welfare. The nurse has a responsibility of ensuring the patient’s welfare and carrying out the new, aggressive course of chemotherapy. In many situations, nurses have administered medication to patients without informing them of the benefits or consequences of such a medication. According to Ashcroft et al (2007), a patient should be fully aware of the implications of any medication administered to him or her. An uninformed person or patient is at the danger of making choices and decisions that are not as per his or her wishes or will. Medical practitioners can only make decisions on a patient on medication only if the individual is incapacitated. The nurse’s action to follow the physician’s instructions to administer the antidepressant medication to all patients was unethical. The nurse should have informed the physician that it was unethical and that the patients needed to be aware of the medication they receive in the hospital. Medical health practitioners have long avowed that they are obligated to avoid doing harm to their patients. In this case, the physician and the nurse are against the ethical maxim of non-malfeasance.

Good Governance Principles

Good Governance Principles Governance is the deliberate and conscious management of regime structures for enhancing the public realm.Governance can be viewed from social, political and economic perspectives. Indeed, good governance is pivotal to the development process.Development linked governance has been an issue much debated in the contemporary world. The term governance has taken a much wider meaning and is no longer restricted to rule or administration but is used in a broader sense to imply the manner in which power is exercised. Since power can be exercised in any manner as desired, certain principles would be required in order to judge whether the discourse of the power has been made as per certain standards and norms. Such judgment can be based on several criteria participation of citizens, upholding the rule of law, transparency of the system, responsiveness of the authority, consensus oriented policy, equity and inclusiveness of the policy, accountability of the system, strategic vision of the aut hority, etc. At the end of the Cold War era, the term good governance came into circulation which signified the prescriptions by donor agencies for carrying out economic and political reforms by the recipient countries. These prescriptions were presented by international donor agencies as conditionalities and were expected to be met with compliance.  [4]   The World Bank defines good governance as ..the one epitomized by predictable, open, and enlightened policy-making, a bureaucracy imbued with a professional ethos acting in furtherance of the public good, the rule of law, transparent processes, and a strong civil society participating in public affairs. Poor governance (on the other hand) is characterized by arbitrary policy making, unaccountable bureaucracies, un-enforced or unjust legal systems, the abuse of executive power, a civil society unengaged in public life and widespread corruption.  [5]   The Government of Maharashtra Report on Good Governance sought to elucidate on the concept of good governance.  [6]  At the outset in the Mission Statement of the report, it clarified that the concept of good governance was much larger than mere administrative reforms as understood in the conventional sense of the term as it covered more ground and substance. Good governance has much to do with the ethical grounding of governance and therefore must be evaluated with reference to specific norms and objectives as may be laid down. Apart from looking at the functioning of the given segment of the society from the point of view of its acknowledged stakeholders and beneficiaries and customers and incorporating these perspectives in the course of its actions, it must have firm moorings to certain moral values and principles. As a concept, good governance applies to various and distinct sections of the society; the government, legislature, judiciary, the media, the private sector, the corporate sector, the co-operatives, societies, trusts, organizations and even non-governmental organizations.  [7]  After all, public accountability and transparency are equally relevant for each one of these institutions on which the society derives pillar-strength. Furthermore, only when all these and various other sections of the society conduct their affairs in a socially responsible manner can the objective of achieving larger good for the largest number of people in the society be realized. It must also be mentioned that the foremost test of good governance is the respect for the rule of law. As the often quoted saying goes, the law is supreme and above all its subjects. Governance must always be based on rule of law. Every lawfully established government must govern according to the laws of the land and all its actions must uphold the rule of law and any effort to take the law in ones own hand or to undermine the law by anyone, howsoever high and mighty he may be, must be dealt with speedily, decisively and in an exemplary manner. The Report goes on to observe that it is a matter of great concern that despite over five decades of Independence, it cannot be said with conviction that our governance is based on the rule of law. CHAPTER 2: PRINCIPLES OF GOOD GOVERNANCE 2.1 Principles of Good Governance The pillars of governance include accountability, transparency, predictability and participation these are universally applicable regardless of economic orientation, strategic priorities, or policy choices of the government in question. However, there application must be country-specific and purely based on the economic, social and administrative capacity of the country. The universally accepted characteristics of good governance include participation, rule of law, transparency, responsiveness, equity, inclusiveness, effectiveness, efficiency and accountability.  [8]   The following text shall cover the principles which may be considered as the key principles of good governance in the opinion of the researcher. These key elements have been listed out by the researcher based on their relevance and contribution towards establishing an efficient and objective driven governing authority, covering socio-political and economic considerations. The determinative role that these principles play are supported by the various texts of international governing authorities, like the United Nations, as well as the emphasis laid upon them by the Constitutions of various countries including India. Therefore, these principles are covered not only by hard-law provisions, i.e. legislations, treaties, etc. which make the compliance to such principles mandatory, but also soft-law provisions, i.e. declarations, policies outlining desirable targets, etc. which reflect the consensus of countries and their convergence in thought process vis-à  -vis these principles. (1) Free and Fair Elections Since good governance emphasizes on the significance attached to the right people being involved in the decision making process, a democratic setup where the representatives of the people are in control of the power, ensured by free and fair elections, holds importance towards ensuring good governance. Free and fair elections ensure that the citizens are able to exercise their right to elect their leaders and hence participate in voicing their interests through these leaders. However, such an election process must be free and fair, where the voters have a choice amongst the candidates and the right to the relevant information concerning the candidates in order to elect the leader who according to them could best serve the government. Such elections are open to all persons without discriminating on sex, race or ethnicity and are without interference or coercion by the government.. The right to vote is a constitutionally safeguarded right and is the cornerstone of a democratic society. However, other factors which discussed below are essential to ensure that elections are a means to a democratic society, and not an end by themselves.  [9]   (2) Independent Judiciary The Rule of Law A crucial aspect of the constitutional mechanism is a system of checks and balances that is imposed upon the different organs of the State. While power is granted to the government, its use is overlooked and kept within acceptable limits by the constitutional limits like periodic elections, guarantees of rights, and an independent judiciary which permits the citizens to seek protection of their rights and redress against government actions. In this way, one branch of the government is able to provide accountability for the actions of another. The value attached to an independent judiciary cannot be neglected due to its role in preserving the rule of law.  [10]  The rule of law binds the branches of the government together. It also lays the foundation for the sound establishment of the healthy economic, social and political life. The Courts must uphold the rule of law in the State, fairly and without discrimination, providing equal protection for women and minorities and allow open and fair access to judicial and administrative systems. Political or civil rights must not be denied by reasons of sex, race or ethnicity. Justice should be available for all sections of the society. Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It requires full protection of human rights, particularly those of the minorities. Impartial enforcement of laws requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force.  [11]   (3) Freedom of Speech Press To function efficiently, a democratic society based on justice must not restrict the free exchange of ideas and information. To achieve this, free and open press and the freedoms of speech and expression are constitutionally safeguarded rights as well to cultivate effective governance. We live in an information driven society, and the access to information provides a vital tool to the public to make informed choices regarding their day to day lives and enables them to participate in the governance process. Such freedoms also serve as a check on the accountability for the government and lets the citizens redress the government for its actions. It facilitates the exchange of political discourse, creating a marketplace of ideas where no view is stifled and the best are chosen.  [12]   (4) Elimination of Corruption Good governance also translates into the elimination of corruption to preserve the integrity of democracy. Governments must strive to rid themselves of bribery as corruption damages economic development and reform, and is an obstacle as far as the ability of developing countries to attract foreign investment is concerned while also hindering the growth of democratic institutions, and concentrating power in the hands of a few. The best way to combat corruption is for governments to be open and transparent. While in certain cases governments have a responsibility to retain secrecy and confidentiality, democratic governments must be sensitive to the citizens right to know. Strong laws against corruption and the presence of law enforcement agencies that work against corruption demonstrate a governments commitment to this principle.  [13]   (5) Investment in People Reaping maximum benefit and managing the limited resources before the country is a task which must be performed by the administration. While following good governance practices, the government must invest in the people to cultivate a human resource base. This means that ample resources must be devoted to preserve the welfare of the citizens, without discrimination, and provide health care, education, etc., and an environment where political, economic and social well being, peace and justice can be achieved.  [14]   (6) Legitimacy Voice All citizens, men and women, must have a voice in the decision making process in good governance compliant State. This may be direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions. Such broad participation is made possible by the freedom of association and expression. Of the principles enumerated thus far, the principle of legitimacy and voice has the strongest claim to universal recognition based on over a half century of United Nations accomplishments in the field of human rights.  [15]  Another facet of good governance is the intention to act on consensus and not on the will of a few, whether strong or weak. This mediates the differing interests to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best interest of the entire society. A long term perspective giving due regard to the holistic effect on the society must be undertaken before the governing authority envisages on a path and focus on sustainable human development. This may include better understanding the historical, cultur al and social contexts of the given society.  [16]   (7) Direction The leaders in particular and the public in general should have a broad and long term perspective on good governance and human development, accompanied with a strong sense of the historical, cultural and social complexities in which that perspective is grounded.  [17]   The leaders and the public should have a broad and long-term perspective on good governance and human development, along with a sense of what is needed for such development. There is also an understanding of the historical, cultural and social complexities in which that perspective is grounded. Governance is thus a checklist of criteria of managing public affairs. As Lewis T. Preston, the World Bank president, categorically stated in hi foreword to Governance and Development, Good governance is an essential complement to sound economic policies. Efficient and accountable management by the public sector and a predictable and transparent policy framework are critical to the efficiency of markets and governments, and hence to economic development.  [18]   (8) Performance Orientation While good governance necessitates the consideration of several other factors, achieving the targets set forth by the government cannot be overlooked. These institutions and processes must attempt to serve all the stakeholders, and produce results that meet the needs while making the best use of the resources.  [19]  The work should always be oriented towards achieving optimal performance. Performance can be divided into two categories responsiveness of the government, and the effectiveness and efficiency of the government. Good governance calls for serving of the stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe which would ensure trust and acceptance of the public. Responsiveness of the government can only be tested if there exists meaningful and serious civil society engagement in the public affairs of the State.  [20]  The concept of efficiency in the context of good governance also covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the protections of the environment. (9) Accountability Information is also associated with the power government exercises. By restricting information, people within government become more powerful that those who are without it. Thus, demand for transparency and information is also about sharing of power. It is possible to misuse power when it is concentrated rather than when it is shared among a broader stream of people. As information grows, the arbitrariness of government tends to reduce.  [21]   Good governance entails the accountability of those who have been entrusted with certain duties and powers. Since the public participates in the decision making through the elected representatives and through the appointed decision makers, these decision makers are accountable to the public for the use of their powers. The level of this accountability may however differ in accordance with the organization in question and the nature of the decision. The private sector and civil society organizations must also be held accountable to the public and their institutional stakeholders. In general, an organization or an institution is accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions or actions.  [22]   Accountability cannot be enforced without transparency and the rule of law. Transparency refers to the taking decisions and enforcing them in accordance with rules and regulations and making the information with regard to such actions accessible for scrutiny by those the decisions affect. In simplistic terms, it means also that sufficient information is provided and that it is provided in easily understandable forms and mediums.  [23]  Transparency depends on the building of a free flow of information. Processes, institutions and information are directly made accessible to those concerned with them and enough information is provided to understand and monitor them.  [24]   (10) Fairness There must prevail a sense of fairness emanating from the decisions of the governing body. The members of the society should feel as equal participants in the society. All persons should be regarded as equals, and certain rights which are considered inalienable to humans must be respected. Discrimination of any kind such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, etc. must not be condoned. Equal opportunity must be given to everyone to improve or maintain their well being. At the same time, certain protected sections of the society must be given special attention if there exists a need for the government to help alleviate their economic, social or political standing. CHAPTER 3 Good Governance in the Indian Context Life of the law is not logic, but experience.  [25]   2.1 Good Governance: Recent Initiatives The pre dominant theme in contemporary debate over administrative reforms in India has been the target of achieving objectives under a regime of good governance. This implies a broader outlook towards management of such matters without exclusively restricting it to public administration. It is suggested that this idea stems from the concept of liberalization which places the individual over collective preferences, and the State shrinks to give place to the market that demands economic efficiency.  [26]   The contemporary efforts towards administrative reforms are not directed against an autonomous State, but instead a bureaucracy that is coming to grips with the changing role of the State. The bureaucracy is itself under an attack; on account of its inefficiency and also because of its association with a political system which has failed to perform, a system which deprived the citizens of their legitimate rights in decision making for far too long.  [27]  Another striking feature of these reforms is their tendency to be more ideologically oriented than before. This context must therefore be kept in mind while debating over the reform initiatives in recent times. The change in the context is primarily seen as an induced effect of the demand generated by the peoples struggle to make the government accountable. It is a change spearheaded by the efforts of the people. It is not a deliberate attempt by a benevolent government to come clean. Kuldeep Mathur makes an interesting observation that the government while reacting to this demand raised by the people has in fact met with resistance from within its own members.  [28]   The Conference of Chief Secretaries on effective and responsive administration in November 1996 gave birth to certain recommendations which were later converted into an Action Plan by the Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances, which also included brainstorming by the Prime Minister, Cabinet Secretary, Chief Ministers and the Chief Secretaries. The Action Plan intends to introduce accountable administration which is effective and speedy in redressing public grievances, empowerment of local bodies, decentralized delivery system, review of laws, transparency and the right to information, code of ethics for civil servants, anti-corruption policies, etc. The central idea behind the action plan seems to be efficiency.  [29]   The Central Government had setup the Working Group on Right to Information and Promotion of Open and Transparent Government in 1997, which observed democracy means choice and a sound and informed choice is possible only on the basis of knowledge. It went on to argue that transparency and openness in the functioning of the government shall have a cleansing effect on the operations of public agencies and approvingly quoted the saying that sunlight is the best disinfectant.  [30]   In May 1997, at the Conference of Chief Ministers, transparency in the government was discussed and a statement issues which provided for an Action Plan for Effective and Responsive government at the Central and State levels, while conceding that the secrecy and lack of openness in transactions had led to widespread corruption. The statement attracted much praise also because it set upon the government 3 months time to ensure easy access to information for the people vis-à  -vis information relating to government activities and decisions, except information which was sensitive in nature. Soon thereafter, political events took over and no progress was made for nearly a decade, much over the 3 month deadline that had been set.  [31]   While the Right to Information Act was introduced in 2005, continuous efforts are underway to introduce more accountability and transparency in the system. While most of the principles of good governance are found in the Indian legal framework in the form of constitutionally guaranteed safeguards, the governance needs to involve the civil society more actively in the decision making and establish the norms of redressal. The lack of transparency, prevalence of corruption, inefficient working and lack of responsiveness continue to be the grey areas. 2.2 Conclusion As a developing country emerging as an economic superpower, India needs to get its act right. Without certain optimum standards of efficiency, the principles of good governance cannot be attained. The peoples movement demanding good governance in India co-relates to the growing unrest in the civil society frustrated with the inefficiency and the opaqueness in the system. The only solution was to re-invent the government, and thus started a chain of events which included the passing of the Right to Information Act as recently as 2005. With the Indian economys growth story making headlines, the country has awakened to the need of the hour on its path to development. The insistence of international institutions like the World Bank that developing countries comply with the principles of good governance has only worked to Indias advantage. While some progress has been made, a lot more still needs to be done. Imbibing the principles of good governance shall ensure that India continues to march towards development, while effectively managing its resources and providing the socio-politico-economic rights that the citizens of this country are entitled to. However, just how effective this approach proves to be shall be determined by the response of the civil society which started this reform movement. CHAPTER 3 CONCLUSION The study of governance opens up new avenues it enables us to wander into intellectual space where we can search for solutions to the problems that have haunted us for far too long. The primary objective of governance is to discuss the role of the government in coping with the public issues and to tackle the myriad predicaments and difficulties that arise from these transactions. It teaches us that means must not be the ends, and both the means and the ends must be duly understood. The study of governance also enables us to effectively factor in the role that must be played by the other players in the arena of governance the role that must be played by the civil society groups and institutions. Governance is an exercise of economic, political and administrative authority for efficiently managing a countrys affairs, at both micro and macro levels, which includes the mechanisms, processes and institutions through which the citizens and civil society groups are able to communicate their interests, make use of their constitutional and legal rights besides meeting their obligations and mediating their differences.  [32]  It is not only desirable, but imperative that governance for development be accountable, participatory, responsive, effective and efficient for promoting the rule of law, safeguarding the interests of citizens and marching towards a holistic development. The principles of good governance are a set of principles which have gained popularity in an almost dogmatic sense. The universal applicability and acceptance of these principles have seen their application reach a new height and there is now a global pressure to conform to these common minimum standards of governance. These principles envisage a model of governance on which the developing countries, which are fast realizing the link between development and efficient governance, seek to fashion their governance on. The driving force behind this changing scenario have been the international institutions pressing for compliance, and the rising peoples movements demanding their legitimate rights to competent governance in an accountable manner. There is a growing sentiment that the convergence over these principles will result in the governments rising above the challenges before them. At the same time, there is caution in the wind. These principles must not be followed as diktats. Their application must be tailored to the specific needs of governance, sensitizing them to the local conditions. This is on account of the socio-politico-economic values that are affected by these principles. Their introduction as a localized experience prevents the alienation of the very people who must reap benefits. Practicing these principles of good and just governance results in a free and open society where people can pursue their hopes and dreams in a healthy and conducive environment. Moreover, robust and open economies would follow which can be trusted by the investors and financial institutions alike, and development shall flourish. It is a matter of strengthening what our Constitution endeavored to provide us. Respecting the human rights; a fruitful partnership between the government and the civil society; efficiency, accountability and transparency in the machinery; performance orientation with strategic vision; useful use of the human resource base and a strong and independent judiciary together they shall prove to be the desired shot in the arm for a re-invented and rejuvenated system of governance. The governance needs to be carried out in a manner that invokes trust and confidence, a manner which convinces the citizens the countrys biggest resources to come forward and fully par ticipate in an enterprise to secure the objectives of development and progress. In the light of what has been discussed above, with special focus on the realization to introduce changed governance practices and the increased restlessness amongst the people in India, it is almost as if a new governance philosophy has emerged. Unlike the traditional public administration systems that focused on bureaucracy and the delivery of public services, the governance model envisages public managers as entrepreneurs of a new, leaner and increasingly privatized government adapting to the practices and values of private businesses.  [33]  The mantra to be followed by the new governance model would be to transform civil services, underlining the reforms as means to (a) reorganize and downsize the government, (b) set-up a performance based organization, (c) adopt private sector management practices and (d) promote customer-orientation of administration.  [34]   For the developing world which is in the grip of serious debt crisis, the World Banks good governance solution with its accompanying micro and macro-accountability formula hold much promise. Institutional capacity building has been the central point of discussion and promotion of sound development management by removing, as far as possible, the possibilities of capture of benefits by the socially powerful is underway.  [35]   There is today an increasing pressure on our political system and the administrative apparatus generated by civil society organizations to share information and make the process of decision-making transparent. There is a shift towards responsive governance. This can be made practically feasible only if the mindset of the politicians and the bureaucrats undergoes a change, and they are receptive to the initiative of sharing information as well as power with the people.  [36]  

Education and Typical Public School

Another problem pestering the quality of Philippine education is the quality and proficiency of the teachers. According to a recent article (Gerochi, 2002), Filipino teachers lack proficiency in English, Science and Mathematics. Many said that these areas should have been trained comprehensively since as teachers, they should be able to teach the students with a more quality for future growth. But with what I see, the teachers have problems of their own. One example, and the most obvious, is the low salary and terrible working condition. Many public school teachers opt to have â€Å"sidelines† during class that sometimes the teacher simply forgets to teach. But who can blame them if their salaries of around 8000-10,000 pesos, plus deductible, who can a teacher provide for his/her family? And with the rising cost of living, these figures are not enough. Others cannot teach well in class because of the ratio of students to a teacher. In a typical public school, in every one teacher there are 50-60 students in a class! The school facilities can also be a factor of the problem. The Philippines, both in private and public, lacks sophisticated laboratories and facilities to cater the needs of the students. For example, many public schools are still lacking the basic computer laboratories and it is so ironic that computer nowadays, computer education is crucial for future Computer Studies student. Without proper training in computer, how can a student be competitive and computer literate? Jose Rizal reminds us how modern and latest technologies are important in a student’s development in his novel El Filibusterismo. Like in the novel, the laboratory equipment are stored shut in a cabinet and never to be used in class because of the insufficient number of equipment. And when it is shown in class, it is presented like a monstrance of a priest! And prophetic as it seems, Rizal’s time is happening all over again in our contemporary times. Lastly, a common problem of our Philippine education is the rising cost of sending a child to school. Private schools charges skyrocketing tuition and miscellaneous fees to a student that parents are having a hard time to cope with the rising cost of education. Even sending a child in a public school doesn’t fare better since even the poorest of the poor cannot afford to send a child in school. I remember vividly a story of a public school teacher with a pupil of him. He said that this student was so poor that teachers pay for everything so she can go to school. The teachers don’t mind this sacrifice because the student is so bright and intelligent. She never went to college after high school since she cannot really afford it anymore. What saddened the teachers is that this student passed UP but with no scholarship. Right now, many see education not as necessity but a luxury they cannot afford (Reyes, 2002). The state of Philippine education is indeed sad and disheartening. We probably are all asking who’s to blame for all this mess. But we cannot simply point finger since we all have responsibilities to solve these problem. The government tries its best to give the country and it seemed not enough. But we should not blame the government entirely since it is just not the government’s problems. It is the problem of each and every one of us. If we want the highest quality of education in the country, we should work together to solve this problem. As a teacher, these problems will be a big cross to bear. But if I can help solve this problem in my own little way, the cross can be lighter and easier to bear. This is the bitter cup of a teacher to bear. But we must remember that the teacher and every one of us will determine the course of our country’s development through education. Even Rizal said that for a country to progress, education is the key to that success. Solving the problems of Philippine education is a long way to go but if we work for the better, we can attain that quality education we all hope for the best.

Decision Analysis

CREATE Research Archive Published Articles & Papers 1-1-1980 Structuring Decision Problems for Decision Analysis Detlof von Winterfeldt University of Southern California, [email  protected] edu Follow this and additional works at: http://research. create. usc. edu/published_papers Recommended Citation von Winterfeldt, Detlof, â€Å"Structuring Decision Problems for Decision Analysis† (1980). Published Articles & Papers. Paper 35. http://research. create. usc. edu/published_papers/35 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by CREATE Research Archive.It has been accepted for inclusion in Published Articles & Papers by an authorized administrator of CREATE Research Archive. For more information, please contact [email  protected] edu. Acta Psychologica 45 (1980) 71-93 0 North-Holland Publishing Company STRUCTURING DECISION PROBLEMS FOR DECISION ANALYSIS * Detlof von WINTERFELDT ** University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90007, USA Structuring decisio n problems into a formally acceptable and manageable format is probably the most important step of decision analysis.Since presently no sound methodology for structuring exists, this step is still an art left to the intuition and craftsmanship of the individual analyst. After introducing a general concept of structuring, this paper reviews some recent advances in structuring research. These include taxonomies for problem identification and new tools such as influence diagrams and interpretative structural modeling. Two conclusions emerge from this review: structuring research is still limited to a few hierarchical concepts and it tends to ignore substantive problem aspects that delineate a problem it its real world context.Consequently structuring research has little to say about distinctions between typical problem classes such as regulation, siting, or budget allocation. As an alternative the concept of â€Å"prototypical decision analytic structures† is introduced. Such st ructures are developed to meet the substantive characteristics of a specific problem (e. g. , siting a specific Liquid Natural Gas plant) but they are at the same time general enough to apply to similar problems (industrial facility siting). As an illustration, the development of a prototypical analytic structure for environmental standard setting is described.Finally, some typical problem classes are examined and some requirements for prototypical structures are discussed. An introduction to problem structuring Decision analysis can be divided into four steps: structuring the problem; formulating inference and preference models; eliciting probabilities and utilities; and exploring the numerical model results. Prac* This research was supported by a grant from the Department of Defense and was monitored by the Engineering Psychology Programs of the Office of Naval Research, under contract # NOOO14-79C-0529.While writing this paper, the author discussed the problem of structuring exte nsively with Helmut Jungermann. The present version owes much to his thought. Please don’t take footnote 3 too seriously. It is part of a footnote war between Ralph Keeney and me. ** Presently with the Social Science Research Institute, University of Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles, CA 90007, (213) 741-6955. 12 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems titioners of decision analysis generally agree that structuring is the most important and difficult step of the analysis.Yet, until recently, decision analytic research has all but ignored structuring, concentrating instead on questions of modeling and elicitation. As a result, structuring was, and to some extent still is, considered the ‘art’ part of decision analysis. This paper examines some attempts to turn this art into a science. Trees are the most common decision analytic structures. Decision trees, for example, represent the sequential aspects of a decision problem (see Raiffa 1968 ; Brown et al. 1974). Other examples are goal trees for the representations of values (Keeney and Raiffa 1976) and event trees for the representation f inferential problem aspects (Kelly and Barclay 1973). In fact, trees so much dominate decision analytic structures that structuring is often considered synonymous to building a tree. This paper, however, will adopt a more general notion of decision analytic structuring. According to this notion, structuring is an imaginative and creative process of translating an initially ill-defined problem into a set of welldefined elements, relations, and operations. The basic structuring activities are identifying or generating problem elements (e. g. , events, values, actors, decision alternatives) nd relating these elements by influence relations, inclusion relations, hierarchical ordering relations, etc. The structuring process seeks to formally represent the environmental (objective) parts of the decision problem and the decision makers†™ or experts’ (subjective) views, opinions, and values. Graphs, maps, functional equations, matrices, trees, physical analogues, flow charts, and venn diagrams are all possible problem representations. In order to be useful structures for decision analysis, such representations must facilitate the subsequent steps of modeling, elicitation, and numerical nalysis. Three phases can be distinguished in such a generalized structuring process. In the first phase the. problem is identified. The elements which are generated in this phase are the substantive features of the problem: the decision maker(s); the generic classes of alternatives, objectives, and events; individuals or groups affected by the decision; characteristics of the problem environment. This list is pruned by answering questions such as: what is the purpose of the analysis? For whom is the analysis to be performed? Which alternatives can the decision maker truly control?At this stage only very rough relations betw een problem elements are constructed. Examples include organizational relations D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 73 among decision makers, influence relations between classes of actions and events, and rough groupings of objectives. Products of this problem identification step are usually not very formal, and are seldom reported in the decision analytic literature. They may be in the form of diagrams, graphs, or ordered lists. Among the few documented examples are Hogarth et al. (1980) for the problem of city planning and Fischer and von Winterfeldt 1978) for the problem of setting environmental standards. In the second structuring step, an overall analytic structure is developed. The elements generated in this step are possible analytic problem representations. Besides tree structures, these may include more complex structures previously developed for similar problems such as screening structures for siting decisions or signal detection structures for medical decis ion making. Paradigmatic structures of alternative modeling approaches (e. g. , systems dynamics or linear programming) which could fit the problem should also be examined at this step [ 1 I.A creative activity in this structuring phase is to relate and combine part structures, e. g. , simulation structures with evaluation structures, or decision trees of different actors. From the candidate structures and their combinations an overall structure is selected which is judged most representative of the problem and manageable for further modeling and elicitation. Only a handful of analytic structures have been developed which are more complex than decision trees. Gardiner and Ford (in press) combined simulation and evaluation structures.Keeney (in press) developed decision analytic structure for the whole process of siting energy facilities. Von Winterfeldt (1978) constructed a generic structure for regulatory decision making. The third structuring phase coincides with the more traditio nal and limited notion of structuring. In this step the parts of the overall analytic structure are formalized in detail by refining the problem elements and relations identified in the first step. This includes a detailed construction of decision trees, event trees, and goal trees. Linkages between part structures are established, e. g. between simulation and evaluation structures. Decision makers and groups affected by possible decisions are specified together with events or actions linking [l] Although such structures alternatives to decision analytic in the remainder of this paper. structures should be considered, I will ignore 14 D. von Winterfeldt/Structuring decision problems them. Examples of this structuring step can be found in most decision analytic textbooks. This three step structuring process of identifying the problem, developing an analytic structure, and formalizing its detailed content seldom evolves in strict sequence.Instead, the process is recursive, with repeat ed trials and errors. Often the analyst decides on a specific structure and later finds it either unmanageable for modeling or non-representative of the problem. The recognition that a structure needs refmement often follows the final step of decision analysis, if numerical computations and sensitivity analyses point to places that deserve more detailed analysis. Knowing about the recursive nature of the structuring process, it is good decision analysis practice to spend much effort on structuring and to keep an open mind about possible revisions.The above characterization of the structuring process will be used as a format to review the structuring literature. First, the use of problem taxonomies for the step of problem identification is examined. Methods to select analytic approaches are then reviewed as possible aids for the second structuring step. Finally, some recent advances in formalizing part structures are discussed. * Two conclusions emerged from this review and motivated the subsequent sections of this paper: (1) Although structuring research has much to say about analytic distinctions between decision problems and structures (e. . , whether a problem is multiattributed or not), it has little bearing on substantive problem distinction (e. g. , the difference between a typical regulation problem and a typical investment problem). (2) Structuring research is still limited to a few, usually hierarchical concepts and operations. Emphasis is put on simple, operational and computerized structuring. Little effort is spent on creating more complex combinations of structures that represent real problem classes. As an alternative, the concept of prototypical decision analytic structures is introduced.Such structures have more substance and complexity than the usual decision trees or goal trees. They are developed to meet the substantive characteristics of a specific problem, but are at the same time general enough to apply to similar problems. As an illustra tion, IIASA’s [21 development of a prototypical decision analytic [2] International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria. D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 75 structure for environmental standard setting will be described. Finally, several typical classes of decision problems will be examined and some requirements or prototypical structures will be discussed. Taxonomies for problem identification The taxonomies described in the following typically classify decision problems by analytic categories (e. g. , whether a problem is multiattributed or not) and they attempt to slice the universe of problems into mutually exclusive and exhaustive sets. The purpose of such taxonomies is twofold: to facilitate the identification of an unknown element (e. g. , a medical decision problem) with a class of problems (e:g. , diagnostic problem); and to aid the process of matching classes in the problem taxonomy (e. . , diagnostic problems) with an analyti c approach (e. g. , signal detection structures). Thus, by their own aspiration, problem taxonomies should be useful for the early phases of structuring decision problems. MacCrimmon and Taylor (1975) discuss on a rather general level the relationship between decision problems and solution strategies. Decision problems are classified according to whether they are ill-structured or well-structured, depending on the extent to which the decision maker feels familiar with the initial state of the problem, the terminal state, and the transformations equired to reach a desired terminal state. Three main factors contribute to ill-structuredness: uncertainty, complexity, and conflict. For each category MacCrimmon and Taylor discuss a number of solution strategies. These strategies include, for example, reductions of the perceptions of uncertainty, modeling strategies, information acquisition and processing strategies, and methods for restructuring a problem. Taylor (1974) adds to this class ification scheme four basic types of problems: resource specification, goal specification, creative problems, and well structured problems (see fig. 1).Problem types are identified by the decision maker’s familiarity with the three subparts of the problem. Taylor discusses what types of decision strategies are appropriate for each of these problem categories, for example, brainstorming for creative problems and operations research type solutions for well structured problems. Howell and Burnett (1978) recently developed a taxonomy of tasks 16 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring Problem Type Initial State decision problems Terminal State Transformation Type 1, Resource Specification Problems UnfamllIar Type 11, Goal Specification Problems Type III, Creative ProblemsType IV, Well-Structured Problems Varies Varies Unfamihar Varies Vanes Familiar Unfamiliar Familiar Fig. 1. Types of problem structures (Taylor 1974). and types of events with the intention of assessing cognitive options for processing probabilistic information for each taxonomy element. Uncertain events are classified according to three dichotomies: frequentistic – not frequentistic; known data generator – unknown data generator; process external – internal to the observer. Task characteristics are complexity, setting (e. g. , real life us. laboratory), span of events, and response mode characteristics. For each vent/task combination Howell and Burnett discuss how different cognitive processes may be operating when making probability judgments. For example, in estimating frequentistic events with unknown data generators, availability heuristics may be operative. Brown and Ulvila (1977) present the most comprehensive attempt yet to classify decision problems. Their taxonomy includes well over 100 possible characteristics. Decision problems are defined according to their substance and the decision process involved. Substantive taxonomic characteristics are mainly derived from th e analytic properties of the situation, i. . , amount and type of uncertainty, and amount D. von Winterfeldt/Structuring decision problems 71 and types of stakes, types of alternatives. Only a few elements of this part of the taxonomy can be directly related to problem content, i. e. , current vs. contingent decision, operating vs. information act. The taxonomic elements of the decision process refer mainly to the constraints of the decision maker, e. g. , reaction time, available resources. The taxonomy by Brown and Ulvila incorporates most previous problem taxonomies which tried to define decision problems by categories derived from decision analysis.These include taxonomies by von Winterfeldt and Fischer (1975), Miller et al. (1976), and Vlek and Wagenaar (1979). To be useful for problem identification, the above taxonomies should lead an analyst to a class of problems which has characteristics similar to the decision problem under investigation. Unfortunately, the existing probl em taxonomies are ill-suited for this purpose, because they use mainly analytic categories to distinguish problems. Such categories are derivatives of the decision analytic models and concepts, rather than characteristics of real world problems. For example, the analytic categorizations f problems into risky vs. riskless classes is based on the distinction between riskless and risky preference models. Analytic categories create more or less empty classes with little or no correspondence to real problems. For example, none of the above taxonomies allows distinguishing between a typical siting problem and a typical regulation problem in a meaningful way. It appears that substantive rather than analytic characteristics identify real problems. Substantive characteristics are generalized content features of the problems belonging to the respective class. For example, a substantive eature of regulation problems is the involvement of three generic decision makers: the regulator, the regula ted, and the beneficiary of regulation. To become useful for problem identification, taxonomies need to include such substantive problem characteristic& Methods for selecting an overall analytic structure Most taxonomies include some ideas or principles for matching lems with analytic structures or models. MacCrimmon and attempted to match their basic type of decision problems with tive solution strategies, Howell and Burnett speculated on which tive processes may be invoked by typical task/event classes in probTaylor ognicogniproba- 18 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems bility assessment; von Winterfeldt and Fischer identified for each problem category appropriate multiattribute utility models. But in none of these papers explicit matching principles or criteria for the goodness of a match are given. Rather, matches are created on the basis of a priori reasoning about the appropriateness of a strategy, model, or a cognitive process for a particular class of decision problems. Brown and Ulvila (1977) attempted to make this selection process more explicit by creating an analytic taxonomy in correspondence with the problem taxonomy.The analytic taxonomy classifies the main options an analyst may have in structuring and modeling a decision problem. The taxonomy includes factors such as user’s options (amount to be expended on the analysis), input structure (type of uncertainty), elicitation techniques (type of probability elicitation). These categories identify options, both at a general level (optimization, simulation, and Bayesian inference models) and special techniques (e. g. , reference gambles, or Delphi technique). To match problems with analytic approaches Brown and Ulvila created a third taxonomy, called the â€Å"performance measure taxonomy†.This taxonomy evaluates analytic approaches on attributes like â€Å"time and cost measures†, â€Å"quality of the option generation process†, â€Å"quality of communicat ion or implementation†, etc. Different problem classes have different priority profiles on the performance measure categories. Similarly, different analytic approaches have different scoring profiles on the performance measures. The analytic approach chosen should perform well on the priority needs of a particular problem, Brown and Ulvila discuss the ‘goodness of fit’ of several analytic approaches to a number of decision situations in terms of these performance measures.For example, they argue that a contingency type analysis (an element of the analytic taxonomy) is appropriate for decision problems that occur repeatedly and require a fast response (elements of the decision situation taxonomy) because contingency type analysis allows fast calculations (elements of the performance measure taxonomy). Several authors have developed logical selection schemes, which can identify an appropriate analytic approach or model based on selected MacCrimmon (1973), for exampl e, developed a problem features. sequential method for selecting an appropriate approach for multiattrib&e evaluation.The first question to be answered is whether the purpose of the analysis is normative or descriptive. Further questions D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 79 include whether the type of problem has occurred frequently before, if there are multiple decision makers with conflicting preferences, and whether alternatives are available or have to be designed. All questions are of the yes-no type and together create a flow chart for selecting among 19 possible approaches. For example, if the purpose of the analysis is normative, if direct assessments of preferences (e. g. ratings) are valid and reliable, and if the type of problem has frequently occurred before, regression models or ANOVA type approaches would be appropriate. Johnson and Huber (1977) and Kneppreth et al. (1977) discuss a three step procedure for selecting a multiattribute utility assessment approach. In the first step, the characteristics of the multiattribute problem are listed, including discreteness vs. continuity of dimensions, uncertainty vs. no uncertainty, and independence considerations. In the second step the evaluation situation is characterized on the basis of judgments about the task complexity, mount of training required for assessment, face validity required, assessment time, accuracy and flexibility. In the third and final step the profile describing the evaluation problem is compared with a profile characterizing five different generic assessment models or methods. The technique that best matches the situation profile is selected. For example, lottery assessment methods and models would be appropriate if the evaluation problem involves uncertainties, does not require high face validity, and allows for a good amount of training of the assessor. Both the taxonomy riented and the sequential selection methods for matching problems and analysis suffer from c ertain drawbacks. As stated earlier, problem characteristics used in taxonomies typically neglect substantive aspects of the decision problem. Consequently, an analyst may choose an analytic approach based on a match with a spuriously defined problem class. For example, when facing a medical diagnosis problem, an analyst may find that some detailed substantive characteristics of the problem (e. g. , the way doctors process information, the physical format of information, etc. ) suggest a signal detection structure.Yet, as far as I can see, none of the above matching processes would directly lead to such a structure. Advances in formalizing structures Influence diagrams are a recent development in decision analytic structuring (see Miller et al. 1976). Influence diagrams draw a graphical 80 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems picture of the way variables in a decision model influence each other, without superimposing any hierarchical structure. For example, a decision v ariable (price) may ‘influence’ a state variable (demand) and thus ‘influence’ a final state (successful introduction of a new product into market). Influence diagrams have been conceived mainly as an initial pre-structuring tool to create a cognitive map of a decision maker’s or expert’s view of a decision problem. In the present stage influence diagrams are turned into hierarchical structures and analyzed with traditional tools. But research is now underway at SRI International on the use of influence diagrams directly in EV or EU computations. Another generalization of the tree approach is Interpretative Structural Modeling (ISM) developed, for example, in Warfield (1974) and Sage (1977). In interpretative structural modeling, matrix and graph heory notions are used to formally represent a decision problem. First, all elements of the problem are listed and an element by element matrix is constructed. The structure of the relationships betwe en elements is then constructed by filling in the matrix with numerical judgments reflecting the strength of the relationship, or by simply making O-l judgments about the existence/non-existence of a relation. Computer programs can then be used to convert the matrix into a graph or a tree that represents the problem. Influence diagrams, value trees, decision trees, and inference trees can all be thought of as special cases of ISM.For example, in value tree construction, the analyst may begin with a rather arbitrary collection of value relevant aspects, attributes, outcomes, targets and objectives. Using alternative semantic labels for the relationships between these elements (e. g. , ‘similar’, ‘part of’), an element by element matrix can be filled. Finally, the analyst can explore whether a particular relational structure leads to useful goal tree structure. Besides these generalizations of traditional hierarchical structuring tools, several refinements of special structuring techniques have been suggested, particularly for evaluation roblems. Keeney and Raiffa (1976) devoted a whole chapter to the problem of structuring a value tree. They suggest a strategy of constructing a value tree by beginning with general objectives and disaggregating by using a pure explication logic (i. e. , what is meant by this general objective? ). This approach has previously been advocated by Miller (1970) and others. Mannheim and Hall (1967) suggest in addition the possibility of disaggregating general D. van Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 81 objectives according to a means-ends logic (how can this general objective be achieved? ).Other disaggregation logics (problem oriented, process oriented, etc. ) could be analyzed in the ISM context. There are a number of papers that suggest more empirical or synthetic approaches to value tree construction. Of particular interest is a repertory grid technique described by Humphreys and Humphreys (1975) and Humphreys and Wisuda (1979). In this procedure similarity and dissimilarity judgments are used to span the value dimensions of alternatives. Several computer aids have been developed recently to aid decision makers or experts in structuring decision problems. Some of these are discussed in Kelly ( 1978), and Humphreys (1980).These aids typically rely on empty structuring concepts (decison trees, value trees, inference trees, or influence diagrams) and they guide the decision maker/expert in the analytic formulation of his/her problem. Special aids are OPINT for moderately complex problems which can easily be formulated into a decision tree or matrix structure, the decision triangle aid for sequential decision problems with a focus on changing probabilities, and EVAL for multiattribute utility problems (Kelly 1978). In addition to these structuring and assessment aids, there are now computerized aids under development xploiting the idea of influence diagrams and fuzzy set theory . Influence diagrams, ISM, and computer aids are indicative of a trend in structuring research and perhaps in decision analysis as a whole. This trend turns the fundamentally empty structures of decision trees, goal trees, and inference trees into more operational, computerized elicitation tools, without adding problem substance. There are clear advantages to such an approach: a wide range of applicability, flexibility, user involvement, speed, limited training, and feedback, to name only a few. It also reduces the demands on the decision analyst’s time.There is, of course, the other extreme, the prestructured, precanned problem specific version of decision analysis applicable to essentially identical situations. A military example is Decisions and Designs Inc. % SURVAV model (Kelly 1978) which applies to routing decisions for ships to avoid detections by satellites. Such a structure and model can routinely be implemented with almost no additional training. In turn it gives u p generalizability. Neither extreme is totally satisfactory. Empty general structures must consider each problem from scratch. Substantive specific struc- 82 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring ecision problems tures have limited generalizability. The middleground of problem driven but still generalizable structures and models needs to be filled. Problem taxonomies may help here by identifying generic classes of problems. But as was discussed earlier, existing taxonomies are ill equipped for this task since they neglect substantive problem features. The question of filling in the middleground between ‘too general’ structures and ‘too specific’ structures thus becomes a question of searching for generalizable content features of problems that identify generic classes of decisions.These generic classes can then be modelled and structured by â€Å"prototypical decision analytic structures† which are specific enough to match the generalizable problem feature s and general enough to transfer easily to other problems of the same class. At the present stage of research this search process will necessarily be inductive because too little is known about problem substance to develop a problem driven taxonomy and matching analytic structures. An inductive research strategy may attempt to crystallize the generalizable features of a specific application, . or compare a number of similar applications (e. . , with siting problems), or simply use a phenomenological approach to delineate problem classes in a specific application area (e. g. , regulation). In the following two sections some possibilities for developing prototypical decision analytic structures will be discussed. An example of developing a prototypical structure The following example describes the structuring process in the development of a decision aiding system for environmental standard setting and regulation. The work was performed as part of IIASA’s (see fn. 2) standard se tting project (see von Winterfeldt et al. 1978), which had oth descriptive and normative intentions (how do regulators presently set standards? how can analytic models help in the standard setting process? ). Because of this wide approach of the standard setting project, the research group was not forced to produce workable models for specific decision problems quickly. Consequently, its members could afford and were encouraged to spend a substantial amount of time on structuring. Inputs into the structuring process were: – retrospective case studies of specific mental protection agencies; standard processes of environ- national Railway Corporation energylevelmeasure 3 measurefor aeroplanenoise 1 Japanese dB’ ‘SO†, AT SOURCE RULES ROUTING USE SCHEMES SCHEMES LAND Fig. 2. Regulatory alternatives for Shinkansen noise pollution. IMPLEMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT /I ALTERNATIVE OF HOUSE IN HOUSE IN FRONT lMldB(A) WCPNLl MEAS†6iiA~â€Å"> 30 †“ d&i) MEASURED LEO’ EQUIP- TION FICA- SPECI- MENT SPE:D CONTROL RES+RlCT TIMES OPERATION 84 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems – previous models suggested for standard setting; – field studies of two ongoing standard setting processes (oil pollution and noise standards).In addition, the structuring process benefited much from continuing discussions with leading members of environmental agencies in the United Kingdom, Norway, Japan and the United States. Although the structuring effort was geared towards decision analysis, substantial inputs were given by an environmental economist (D. Fischer), an environmental modeller (S. Ikeda), a game theorist (E. Hopfinger), and two physicists (W. Hafele and R. Avenhaus), all members of IIASA’s standard setting research team. The overall question was: how can standard setting problems best be formulated nto a decision analytic format and model such that the model is specific enough to capture the ma in features of a particular standard setting problem and, at the same time, general enough to apply to a variety of such problems? In other words, what is a prototypical decision analytic structure for standard setting? Since the regulator or regulatory agency was presumed to be the main client of such models, the initial structuring focussed on regulatory alternatives and objectives. In one attempt a wide but shallow alternative tree was conceived which included a variety of regulatory ptions ranging from emission standards, land use schemes, to direct interventions. An example for noise pollution standards is presented in fig, 2. Coupled with an appropriate tree of regulatory objectives, a decision analysis could conceivably be performed by evaluating each alternative with a simple MAU procedure. A possible value tree is presented in fig. 3 for the same noise pollution problem. This simple traditional structure was rejected since regulators seldom have to evaluate such a wide rang e of alternatives and because it does not capture the interaction between the regulators and the regulated.Also, regulators are much concerned about monitoring and implementation of standards, an aspect which a simple MAU structure does not address. The second structure was a narrow but deep decision tree, exemplified in fig. 4 for an oil pollution problem. In addition to the regulator’s alternatives, this tree includes responses of the industry to standards, possible detection of standards violations, and subsequent sanctions. This structure was geared at fine tuning the regulators’ definitions of D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 85 of hospitals, schools, retwement homes MINIMIZE f residential life DISTURBANCE other / EEggF M,NIM,zE HEALTH Hearing EFFECTS < PsychologIcal Synergetic (aggravation of existing illness) Investment for pollution equipment MINIMIZE COST ~—–< Operation of pollution eqwpment RAILWAY CORP. OBJECTIVES Speed MAXIMIZ E SERVICE -< Aeliablllty ClXlllOrt wth mtemational regulation CONSISTENCY OF REGULATION with other national â€Å"cise standards (car, mr. other trams) POLITICAL OBJECTIVES -/ Enwonmental policy AGREEMENT POLICY WITH GOVERNMENT Transportation policy t Ewnomtc growih policy Fig. 3. Regulatory objectives for noise pollution control. he standard level (maximum emission, etc. ) and monitoring and sanction schemes, and to assessing environmental impacts. The structure is specific in terms of the regulatory alternatives. But by considering industry responses as random events, and by leaving out responses of environmental groups, it fails to address a major concern of regulatory decision making. The third structure was a three decision maker model, in which the regulator, the industry/developer and the environmentalists/impactees are represented by separate decision analytic models (see von Winterfeldt 1978).A signal detection type model links the regulator’s decision through poss ible detections of violations and sanction schemes to the the industry model. An event tree of pollution generating events and effects links the developer’s decisions to the impactee model (see fig. 5). The model can be run as follows: the regulator’s alternatives are left 86 EPA average UK aver,, UK maximum Norway average DEFINITIONS OF OIL EMISSION STANDARDS parts per million ofoil No pollution – Grawty Separator c&ugated Plate Inter- equipment Gas Flotation Filters ceptrr n ob STANDARD LEVEL in watt r ofoil POLLUTION EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE o00 patis per milhon in water n First vidabon of No udat#on of standard occurs at tulle DETECTION STATES standard dunng all opemons n t POLLUTION EQUIPMENT DECISION BY THE OIL INDUSTRY PENALTY No pdlution equipment Gravity separator Gas Flotatux corrugated Plate bltw- Pais Filters EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE per million n Second wdation POLLUTION EQUIPMENT DECISION BY THE OIL INDUSTRY No more vidations DETECTION STATES Find eflect s~ on environment (pdlution levels) FINAL EFFECTS – industry (cost) – regulatlx (political) Fig. 4. Segment of a decision tree for setting oil pollution standards. A standard is usually defined by the number of samples to be taken, how many samples form an average, and how many exemptions from a violation are allowed. For example, the EPA average definition is as follows: four samples are to be taken daily, the average of the four samples may not exceed the standard level (e. g. , 50 ppm) more than twice during any consecutive 30 day period. 87 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems REGULATORY 1 DECISION MODEL I U R (0 1 DETECTION OF REGULATION VIOLATION DEVELOPER – SANCTIONS POLLUTION GENERATING EVENTS I IMPACTEE DECISION MODELPOLLUTION EFFECTS Fig. 5. Schematic representation of the regulator-developer-impactee model. 1: variable standard of the regulator d(r): expected utility maximizing treatment decision of the developer a[d(r)]: expected utility maximizing decision of the impactees variable. The developer’s response is optimized in terms of minimizing expected investment, operation, and detection costs or maximizing equivalent expected utilities. Finally, the impactees are assumed to maximize their expected utility conditional on the regulator’s and the developer’s decision. At this point the model stops.The structure only provides for a Pareto optimality analysis of the three expected utilities accruing to the generic decision units. This model allows some detailed analyses of the probabilities and value aspects of the standard setting problem, and it proved feasible in a pilot application to chronic oil discharge standards (see von Winterfeldt et al. 1978). Regulators who were presented with this model, con- 88 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems REGULATOR’S CHOICE Fig. 6. Game theoretic structure of the regulation I problem. sidered it meaningful, and it offered several insights into the standard setting problematique.Yet, there was a feeling among analysts and regulators that the static character of the model and the lack of feedback loops required improvement. The final structure considered was a game theoretic extension of the three decision maker model. The structure of the game theoretic model is presented in fig. 6. In this model the standard setting process in explicitly assumed to be dynamic, and all feedbacks are considered. In addition, transitions from one stage to another are probabilistic. The model was applied in a seven stage version in a pilot study of noise standard setting for rapid trains (Hapfinger and von Winterfeldt 1978).The game theoretic model overcomes the criticisms of the static decision analytic model, but in turn it gives up the possibility for fine tuning and detailed modeling of trade-offs and probabilities. Considering such aspects in detail would have made the running of the model impossible. Therefore, relatively arbitrar y (linear) utility functions and simple structures of transition probabilities have to be assumed. Although the appropriateness of the different structures was not explicitly addressed in this study, two main criteria come to mind when judging structures: representativeness of the problem and manageability for further analysis.Each of these criteria can be further broken down. For example, representativeness includes judgments about the adequacy of the structural detail, and coverage of important problem aspects. The overall conclusions of many discussion with regulators, analysts, D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 89 industry representatives, and the results of the pilot applications led us to accept the third structure as a prototypical decision analytic structure for relatively routine emission standard setting problems. The model is presently considered for further applications in emission tandard setting and an extension to safety standards will be explored. Tow ards a kit of prototypical decision analytical structures Not every decision analysis can afford to be as broad and time consuming as the previous study. Decision analysis usually has a much more specific orientation towards producing a decision rather than developing a generic structure. Still I think that it would be helpful if analysts were to make an effort in addressing the question of generalizability when modeling a specific problem, and in extracting those features of the problem and the model that are transferable. Such an inductive pproach could be coupled with more research oriented efforts and with examinations of similarities among past applications. Such an approach may eventually fill the middleground between too specific and too general models and structures. But rather than filling this middleground with analytically specific but substantively empty structures and models, it would be filled with prototypical structures and models such as the above regulation model, more refined signal detection models, siting models, etc. In the following, four typical classes of decision problems (siting, contingency planning, budget allocation, and regulation) are examined nd requirements for prototypical structures for these problems are discussed. Facility siting clearly is a typical decision problem. Keeney and other decision analysts have investigated this problem in much detail and in a variety of contexts (see the examples in Keeney and Raiffa 1976). A typical aspect of such siting problems is sequential screening from candidate areas to possible sites, to a preferred set, to final site specific evaluations. Another aspect is the multiobjective nature with emphasis on generic classes of objectives: investment and operating cost, economic benefits, environmental impacts, social impacts, and political onsiderations. Also, the process of organizing, collecting, and evaluating information is similar in many siting decisions. Thus, it should be possible to develop a prototypical structure for facility siting decisions, 90 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems simply by assembling the generalizable features of past applications [ 31. Contingency planning is another recurring and typical problem. Decision and Design Inc. addressed this problem in the military context, but it also applies to planning for actions in the case of disasters such as Liquid Natural Gas plant explosions or blowouts from oil platforms.Substantive aspects that are characteristic of contingency planning are: strong central control of executive organs, numerous decisions have to be made simultaneously, major events can drastically change the focus of the problem, no cost or low cost information comes in rapidly, and organizational problems may impede information flows and actions. Although, at first glance, decision trees seem to be a natural model for contingency planning, a prototypical decision model would require modifying a strictly sequential appr oach to accommodate these aspects.For example, the model should be flexible enough to allow for the ‘unforeseeable’ (rapid capacity to change the model structure), it should have rapid information updating facilities without overstressing the value of information (since most information is free), and it should attend to fine tuning of simultaneous actions and information interlinkages. Budget allocation to competing programs is another typical problem. In many such problems different programs attempt to pursue similar objectives, and program mix and balance has to be considered besides the direct benefits of single programs.Another characteristic of budgeting decisions is the continuous nature of the decision variable and the constraint of the total budget. MAU looks like a natural structure for budget allocation decision since it can handle the program evaluation aspect (see Edwards et al. 1976). But neither the balance issue nor the constrained and continuous characte ristics of the budget are appropriately adressed by MAU. A prototypical decision analytic structure would model an evaluation of the budget apportionment, or the mix of programs funded at particular levels.Such a structure would perhaps exploit dependencies or independencies among programs much like independence assumption for preferences. Regulation covers a class of decision problems with a number of recurrent themes: three generic groups involved (regulators, regulated, [,3] I believe that. Keeney’s forthcoming book on siting energy facilities is a major step in that direction. Of. course, it could also be a step in the opposite direction. Or in no direction at all (see also first asterisked footnote at the beginning of the article). D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 91 beneficiaries of regulation), importance f monitoring and sanction schemes, usually opposing objectives of the regulated and the benefrciaries of regulation, and typically highly political o bjectives of the regulator. In the previous section, the more specific regulation problem of standard setting was discussed, and a prototypical decision analytic structure was suggested. A decision analytic structure for regulation in general can build on the main features of the standard setting model. This list could be extended to include private investment decisions, product mix selection, resource development, diagnostic problems, etc. But the four examples hopefully re sufficient to demonstrate how prototypical decision analytic structuring can be approached in general. In my opinion, such an approach to structuring could be at least as useful for the implementation of decision analysis as computerization of decision models. Besides the technical advantages of trahsferability, prototypical decision analytic structures would serve to show that decision analysts are truly concerned about problems. Today decision analysis books have chapters such as ‘simple decisions under uncertainty’ and ‘multiattribute evaluation problems’. I am looking forward to chapters such as ‘siting industrial acilities’, ‘pollution control management’, and ‘contingency planning’. References Brown, R. V. and J. W. Ulvila, 1977. Selecting analytic approaches for decision situations. (Revised edition. ) Vol. I: Overview of the methodology. Technical report no. TR77-7-25, Decisions and Designs, Inc. , McLean, VA. Brown, R. V. , A. S. Kahr and C. Peterson, 1974. Decision analysis for the manager. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Edwards, W. , M. Guttentag and K. Snapper, 1976. A decision-theoretic approach to evaluation research. In: E. L. Streuning and M. Guttentag (eds. ), Handbook of evaluation research, I. London: Sage.Fischer, D. W. and D. von Winterfeldt, 1978. Setting standards for chronic oil discharges in the North Sea. Journal of Environmental Management 7, 177-199. Gardiner, P. C. and A. Ford, in press. A merger of simulation and evaluation for applied policy research in social systems. In: K. Snapper (ed. ), Practical evaluation: case studies in simplifying complex decision problems. Washington, DC: Information Resource Press. Hogarth, R. M. , C. Michaud and J. -L. Mery, 1980. Decision behavior in urban development: a methodological approach and substantive considerations. Acta Psychologica 45, 95-117. Hiipfmger, E. and R. Avenhaus, 1978.A game theoretic framework for . dynamic standard setting procedures. IIASA-RM-78. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria. 92 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems Hopfinger, E. and D. von Winterfeldt, 1979. A dynamic model for setting railway noise standards. In: 0. Moeschlin and D. Pallaschke (eds. ), Game theory and related topics. Amsterdam: North-Holland. pp. 59-69. Howell, W. C. and S. A. Burnett, 1978. Uncertainty measurement: a cognitrve taxonomy. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 22 ,45-68. Humphreys, P. C. , 1980. Decision aids: aiding decisions. In: L.Sjoberg, T. Tyszka and J. A. Wise (eds), Decision analyses and decision processes, 1. Lund: Doxa (in press). Humphreys, P. C. and A. R. Humphreys, 1975. An investigation of subjective preference orderings for multiattributed alternatives. In: D. Wendt and C. Vlek (eds. ), Utility, probability, and human decision making. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel, pp. 119-133. Humphreys, P. C. and A. Wisudha, 1979. MAUD – an interactive computer program for the structuring, decomposition and recomposition of preferences between multiattributed alternatives. Technical report 79-2, Decision Analysis Unit, Brunel University, Uxbridge, England.Johnson, E. M. and G. P. Huber, 1977. The technology of utility assessment. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, vol. SMCJ, 5. Keeney, R. L. , in press. Siting of energy facilities. New York: Academic Press. Keeney, R. L. and H. Raiffa, 1976. Decisions with multiple objec tives: preferences and value tradeoffs. New York: Wiley. Kelly, III, C. W. , 1978. Decision aids: engineering science and clinical art. Technical Report, Decisions and Designs, Inc. , McLean, VA. Kelly, C. and S. Barclay, 1973. A general Bayesian model for hierarchical inference. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 10, 388-403.Kneppreth, N. P. , D. H. Hoessel, D. H. Gustafson, and E. M. Johnson, 1977. A strategy for selecting a worth assessment technique. Technical paper 280, U. S. Army Research Institute for Behavioral and Social Sciences, Arlington, VA. MacCrimmon, K. R. , 1973. An overview of multiple criteria decision making. In: J. L. Cochrane and M. Zeleney (eds. ), Multiple criteria decision making. Columbia, SC: The University of South Carolina Press. pp. 18-44. MacCrimmon, K. R. and R. N. Taylor, 1975. Problem solving and decision making. In: M. C. Dunnette (ed. ), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. New York: Rand McNally.Mannheim, M. L. and F. Hall, 1967. Abstract representation of goals: a method for making decisions in complex problems. In: Transportation, a service. Proceedings of the Sesquicentennial Forum, New York Academy of Sciences – American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York. Miller, J. R. , 1970. Professional decision making: a procedure for evaluating complex alternatives. New York: Praeger. Miller, AC. , M. W. Merkhofer, R. A. Howard, J. E. Matheson and T. R. Rice, 1976. Development of automated aids for decision analysis. Technical report, Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, CA. Raiffa, H. , 1968. Decision analysis.Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Sage, A. , 1977. Methodology for large scale systems. New York: McGraw-Hill. Taylor, R. C. , 1974. Nature of problem ill-structuredness: implications for problem formulation and solution. Decision Sciences 5,632-643. Vlek, C. and W. A. Wagenaar, 1979. Judgment and decision under uncertainty. In: J. A. Michon, E. G. Eijkman and L. F. W. DeKlerk (eds. ), Handbook of psychonomics, II. Amsterdam: North-Holland. pp. 253-345. Warfield, J. , 1974. Structuring complex systems. Batelle Memorial Institute Monograph, no. 4. Winterfeldt, D. von, 1978. A decision aiding system for improving the environmental standardD. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 93 setting process. In: K. Chikocki and A. Straszak (eds. ), Systems analysis applications to complex programs. Oxford: Pergamon Press. pp. 119-124. Winterfeldt, D. von and D. W. Fischer, 1975. Multiattribute utility: models and scaling procedures. In: D. Wendt and C. Vlek (eds. ), Utility, probability, and human decision making. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel. pp. 47-86. Winterfeldt, D. von, R. Avenhaus, W. Htiele and E. Hopfmger, 1978. Procedures for the establishment of standards. IIASA-AR-78-A, B, C. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria.